It's been a long time since our last posts, so I figured I'd take it upon myself to give you all an update on what's been going on in the lab. Whether you like it or not. And, since there have been a lot of really interesting archaeological finds in the last few weeks I'll wrap up things with a nice collection of stories to check out.
So, students came back from Fall Break last Thursday, midterms a faint memory, but research papers a growing fear on the horizon. Thankfully, they all come back to the lab no worse for wear. Right now there are 3 students working on displays, all using objects from our ethnographic collections. We've got one student working on re-classifying artifacts from a really cool, multi-component site in Clayton County; 3 students working on research/blog posts; 2 students digitizing audio cassettes; 1 student scanning our documents; and 4 students cataloging artifacts from a historic site in Van Buren county. That's what we've got going up here in a nutshell. Now on to the links...
Der Spiegel has a really detailed article about Martin Luther. Apparently archaeologists have discovered some pretty interesting artifacts associated with the theologian. There is also a lot of enlightening information about Luther's life and thinking. You'll never guess where the author think Luther came upon some of his inspiration. Der Spiegel. (photo to the right from Getty Images)
Scott Ortman is applying a four field approach to the study of the people of the Southwest,specifically the ancient peoples of the Mesa Verde region and modern Puebloan peoples, with really amazing results. Although the news release is a little short on findings or specifics, its great to see what's possible and how each field can inform and enrich the larger picture. ASU News.
In September, a news article emerged discussing how the Zulu in South Africa continue to practice virginity testing even though it is currently banned by the government.Last year, the South African government banned virginity testing for women under the age of 16, a practice which still causes much debate and which continues to be practiced by many in the country.Every year an annual ceremony is held where adolescent girls are inspected by a group of elderly women before receiving a certificate proclaiming her virginity.This is considered a high honor followed by a celebratory dance for the Zulu king.The Zulus believe that by continuing to perform virginity tests, it is helping to curb teenage pregnancy and the spread of AIDS.They say that it also encourages abstinence, which can prevent a variety of deadly diseases.However, many opponents of virginity testing assert that these tests subject girls to degrading public spectacles and those girls who do not pass can face emotional scarring.They also say that it does not prevent the spread of AIDS because it is still acceptable for the Zulu men to engage in sexual intercourse before marriage.
Another country that has had a similar debate in the past few years is Zimbabwe.Here women are also subjected to a physical examination by a group of elders before they get married.The situation is also similar with proponents of testing saying that it curbs the spread of AIDS and opponents believing that it is degrading and a double standard.An interesting aspect of virginity testing in this country can be seen on the eastern border of Zimbabwe where men must take a test proving they are not HIV positive before they can get married.Although it is not the same thing as a virginity test it is an attempt of trying to reduce the spread of AIDS.
In addition to physical examinations, it is common for many cultures around the world to hold a ceremony after the wedding night to determine if the woman was a virgin by observing whether the wedding sheet had been bloodied or not.This practice was formerly performed in countries such as China, Kenya and the French territory of Mayotte in addition to many others.In China, failure of this test could have been used as grounds for dismissal, divorce or reclamation of bride price.Mayotte and the city of Mombasa in Kenya had similar practices in that there was an intensive ceremony the night of the wedding and the morning after, with many songs and dances celebrating the girl’s virginity.The bride’s mother or grandmother would often display the wedding sheet the following morning accompanied by specific songs and dances.This practice was especially common before the 1970s and has since reduced in popularity.
Another country that has recently had discussions about virginity testing is Indonesia.Last August, a video surfaced at an Indonesian school of two students having sex.The principal of the school proposed having virginity tests for the school’s female students with the belief that it would curb pre-marital sex.However, since many parents viewed the testing as a violation of human rights the proposition was dropped.
Turkey is another country that in the past 15 years has had to confront their practice of virginity testing.In 1992, there were two suicides by high school girls who were forced to get virginity exams.In Turkey, virginity is highly valued and is considered a matter of family honor.It was not uncommon for government officials to force women of all ages to be subjected to virginity exams, especially hospital patients, students and prisoners.When this story became widely known in the early 1990s, there was a great public outcry from around the world for the termination of this practice stating that it was a violation of human rights.After much debate and discussion, Turkey passed a law in February 2002, banning virginity testing.
The concept of virginity testing is not new; it has been practiced for thousands of years by cultures all over the world.However, there is little scientific evidence about the accuracy of these tests.Essentially when testing for virginity, people act on the belief that the woman’s hymen is still intact.The problem with this is that a woman’s hymen can be torn in many ways, and not just by sexual intercourse.Also, it is not universally common for a woman to bleed the first time she has intercourse.Some cultures even use fake blood to give the appearance that the woman was a virgin on her wedding night.Therefore, this is basically a cultural practice and has little, if any, scientific basis.Today this practice is viewed by many to be a violation of human rights, causing conflicts between those who wish to end the practice and those who want to continue the tradition.
References:
Engel, John W. “Marriage in the People's Republic of China: Analysis of a New Law”.Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 46, No. 4 (Nov., 1984), pp. 955-961
Lambek, Michael. “Virgin Marriage and the Autonomy of Women in Mayotte”.Signs, Vol. 9, No. 2 (Winter, 1983), pp. 264-281
Topan, Farouk M. “Vugo: A Virginity Celebration Ceremony among the Swahili of Mombasa”. African Languages and Cultures, Vol. 8, No. 1 (1995), pp. 87-107
One aspect of archaeology that we don’t often hear about in the land-locked state of Iowa is underwater archaeology.A few weeks ago in the weekly online publication from Cairo, Al-Ahram, there was an article speculating about the possible development of an underwater archaeology museum in Alexandria.This isn’t the first time we’ve heard about this project: UNESCO, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, held an expert meeting back in 2006 to discuss the project’s feasibility.Prior to that, the idea was discussed at an UNESCO international workshop held in 1998 on Submarine Archaeology and Coastal Management.The overall consensus of these endeavors seem to be that the construction of an underwater archaeology museum in Alexandria has great potential to boost the economy of the area, provide access to great cultural treasures, and promote further research in the area.This is an exciting move for museums in general because it would expand the realm of museum’s public education to beneath the sea.To my knowledge no one has ever attempted to build an archaeological museum under water before so there is no past precedent.That means it could be quite a while before we see the proposed museum because the feasibility study being funded by UNESCO will have to take every aspect of the design, construction, and implementation into consideration before moving forward.
(Jacques Rougerie Architect – Illustration)
What is so special about Alexandria?
The bay of Alexandria, the proposed site of the underwater museum, is unusually rich in artifacts because so much of the city has collapsed into the ocean because of earthquakes since the 4thcentury AD.Alexander the Great first founded the city of Alexandria in 331 BCE as the capital of Egypt.The archaeological history of the site goes back even farther because prior to this there had been a smaller settlement on the site.Many of the important archaeological finds relating to Alexandria have been at the bottom of the harbor.Most notably is the palace of Cleopatra, which was consumed by the sea as the result of ancient earthquakes, has been discovered on the harbor floor.Also on the floor of Alexandria’s harbor are pieces of what may be Pharos, the legendary lighthouse that was one of the 7 wonders of the ancient world.These archaeological remains include statues, pieces of buildings and streets, jewelry, and hieroglyphic inscriptions.Much of the ancient city actually crumbled into the sea and has only recently been rediscovered by archaeologists.
(Stéphane Compoint\ Smithsonian.com)
Wouldn't it just be easier to bring artifacts to the surface?
In 2001 UNESCO had a convention on the preservation of underwater cultural heritage.At this convention it was decided that for discoveries of underwater cultural heritage, “all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character which have been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years,” states’ parties should explore preservation in situ as the first plan of action.Due to this decision many artifacts discovered by underwater archaeology often remain in situ unless doing so would be detrimental to their state of preservation.If these objects must remain underwater then the general public will likely never be able to see them.“Design of the Times”,one of the many news articles covering UNESCO’s decision to support the feasibility study for the museum says that the idea behind the museum is: “if the artifacts won't go to the museum, let the museum go to the artifacts.”
What else is going on beneath the waves?
The architect for the proposed Alexandria underwater museum, Jacques Rougerie, has several other underwater designs posted on his website.His designs are for everything from underwater living spaces for scientists who want to study underwater ecosystems to underwater cultural centers like the proposed museum.Although I couldn’t find any other news stories about his other underwater architectural projects, this does seem to be a growing trend in the tourism industry.There are efforts being made to create an underwater resort in Fiji, to open in early 2010, called Poseidon Underwater Resort.
The tourism industry is always looking for new ways to attract visitors.In some ways museums are much the same, although usually not with quite as much funding.For a city like Alexandria that already attracts a large number of tourists annually with more than 11 million tourists visiting Egypt each year, the only way to keep boosting numbers and attracting new visitors is to keep up with the technological advances of the tourism industry.In this case architectural breakthroughs in underwater architecture are allowing for structures to be built underwater for the general public.However, this is still a relatively new direction and is still much more expensive than building on land so any tourism endeavors in the underwater sector will remain pricy for visitors for quite some time – this will likely include admission to the underwater archaeology museum in Alexandria as well when and if it opens.
For more information about the history of Alexandria, the proposed building of the underwater museum, or UNESCO’s involvement here are some links:
Recently, Cahokia Mounds has been receiving much necessary attention as citizens and academics ponder the uncertainty of its future. The state’s Historic Preservation Agency, which oversees the park, was ordered to cut $3 million from its budget – which led to the reduction of staff across the state and the elimination of four positions at Cahokia Mounds.These cuts have led concerned citizens to call for the National Park system to take control of Cahokia Mounds.Cahokia Mounds is an UNESCO World Heritage Cultural Site, one of seven in the United States and the only currently not under the supervision of the National Park Service.
Cahokia Mounds, an Illinois state park, is situated just across the Mississippi River from St. Louis (you can see the arch from atop Monk’s Mound). Its location on the fertile floodplains of the Mississippi put it in the center of a vast area of fertile croplands and wildlife resources.The site, approximately 40 acres in size, contains a complex of earthen mounds, plazas, henges, and dwelling sites.At the height of its power, between 1050 and 1200 CE, the Mississippian peoples who inhabited Cahokia, and its surrounding, outlying farming villages, numbered near 30,000 people, comprising the largest prehistoric population north of Mexico.
While I fundamentally agree with the growing murmurs to nationalize Cahokia Mounds, I think the timing is slightly off, with the United States facing economic uncertainty and the fact that the State of Illinois says they can handle the situation. For all the fuss, there have been no discussions between the state and federal governments. Compared to the historical events that have occurred at Cahokia Mounds, this budget concern is only a small blip. Consider that the Mounds were abandoned long before the arrival of Europeans and have survived the efforts of settlers to homestead the land, the site has remained remarkably intact.Monk’s Mound, the largest earthen construction on the site (and in North America) is named for the failed establishment of a Trappist monastery on its slopes.The site was also once home to a drive-in movie theatre in the 1950’s and a housing development that destroyed several outlying mounds. Cahokia Mounds is in no emanate danger, unless state preservation laws change or Mother Nature brings bounteous erosion.
If you want to help support Cahokia Mounds, I suggest you go visit the site, which includes an amazing looking museum and interpretive center in addition to the mounds.After all the key to preservation is knowledge. The park has no entrance fee, but donations are accepted.I intend to visit next time I’m at the confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers.
National Geographic News recently published an article about the oldest skeleton ever found in the Americas.This skeleton of a female, believed to date to 13,600 years ago, was found in an underwater cave near Tulum, Mexico.Eva de Naharon, named after the cave in which she was found, was accompanied by three other skeletons dating between 11,000-14,000 years ago.Chan hol, one of the other skeletons found, is being excavated currently and is believed to be possibly even older than Eva.
The cave is now 50 feet below sea level but Eva and the other skeletons are believed to have lived in the caves at a time when sea levels were much lower.It is thought that sea levels at that time were as much as 200 feet below their current levels.Along with the human remains, archaeologists have found the remains of such species as elephants, giant sloths and even ancient fauna, which could possibly help to determine the age of the site and re-create the environment near the coast.
These finds raise some questions about the prevailing theory of the populating of the Americas.This theory, commonly referred to as Clovis First, states that the first Americans crossed the Bering Land Bridge from Siberia into Alaska around 11,500-13000 years ago (for more information click here).First of all the age of the skeletons doesn’t seem to fit with the theory.They are much older than would be expected.There may be a reason for this though.According to David Anderson, an archaeologist from the University of Tennessee, the seawater that these bones have been in for thousands of years might have potentially altered the levels of Carbon 14 in the bones. Any alteration in the levels of C14 is going to affect what is believed to be the correct age of these bones.Another aspect that raises questions is the skull morphology.Eva’s skull has more characteristic features of those found in Southern Asia rather than Northern Asia.These finds will be very important as experts learn more about them and confirm information such as how old they are and even where they came from.
Another arctic item from our ethnographic collection is a seal call.We unfortunately do not know the collector or date of this item, but we do know that it comes from the area around Nome, Alaska.The item is made of two seal claws attached to a piece of wood by leather strips. Since seals are traditionally very curious animals, the Inupiat would find the seals’ breathing holes and then use this seal call to scratch the ice to attract the seals.Hearing this sound, the seals would believe that there were other seals nearby and would want to investigate.Inupiat hunters would then patiently sit for hours by holes in the ice during the winter, waiting for a seal to appear.
Winter in Alaska was a harsh and often dangerous season.During this time, the Inupiat would hunt seal instead of caribou or whale which they hunted during the rest of the year.Since the seals were their main source of food, Inupiat groups would move every few weeks to new holes when the seal population became depleted.
In addition to having trouble finding food, the Inupiat would have to deal with extreme cold.During the month of February, the average temperature is between –25 and –30 degrees Fahrenheit.Because of these dangerous conditions, one of the most important defenses against the weather was magic used by shamans.The shamans forecasted the weather and tried to control it when possible.One way in which to control the weather was through the enforcement of taboos and the use of certain charms.By following a strict set of customs and rules, it was believed that the Inupiat could have some control over their physical environment.
Another way that the Inupiat would deal with the harsh winters was to have various celebrations and festivals.Most events occurred during the coldest and darkest months, from October to April, which served to solidify the Eskimo culture politically, socially, economically and religiously.These were also events to look forward to and to brighten the long, dark winter.
One of these festivals was the Messenger Feast.This was held in mid-winter and often lasted for 4 to 7 days, or until the food ran out.At this festival, there were many activities such as men seeking out their guests to deliver memorized songs and “jump dance” competitions where runners from each village would run races to win prestigious prizes.In addition to songs and activities, one of the main purposes of this feast was to promote economic exchange.Coastal and in-land villages would trade their respective goods with each other such as whale oil, walrus ivory, dried fish and caribou meat.By participating in the festival, various villages were able to cement political alliances, trade essential goods, increase social prestige and to bring some excitement to the dark winter days.
Resources Used:
Burch, Ernest S. Jr. The Eskimos.London: Macdonald & Co. 1988
Fair, Susan W., “The Inupiaq Eskimo Messenger Feast: Celebration, Demise, and Possibility”. The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 113, No. 450, Holidays, Ritual, Festival, Celebration, and Public Display (Autumn, 2000), pp. 464-494
The ethnographic collection here at Luther College is very fortunate to have an extensive assortment of material culture from the Inupiat people of Alaska.A large majority of this collection was donated to the college by Luther alumnus Reverend T. L. Brevig, who was a Christian missionary in this region during the end of the 19th century.One interesting object that he brought back was a needle case carved with images from the Inupiat’s everyday life.This needle case is a 13.5 cm long, hollowed out bone with a wooden plug in one end.These cases were used to hold needles that were typically made from bone, antler or ivory.On the case itself are a variety of carved images.One side shows a western-style house along with a shed, dogs, and a person with two hides.
The other side depicts an igloo, shed, and drying rack for fish or caribou.
In the Inupiat culture it is typically the women who make and repair clothing, and such cases were a common part of every woman’s personal effects.The Inupiat women were very able seamstresses, which Brevig comments on several times in his memoirs.Since it was virtually impossible to survive in the harsh arctic environment without adequate clothing, it was very important to be skillful at sewing.Because of this importance, needles - and needle cases - were especially significant and special to the women to which they belonged, which can be seen in the care and attention shown in the decoration.
Generally, traditional Inupiat clothing consisted of a parka, trousers, boots and mittens.Men and women usually had the same clothing, but it would differ in regard to cut and trim.The socks were woven from grass for insulation, while most of the other clothing was made from either sealskin or caribou hides.In addition to clothing, women also used their needles and sewing skills to make tent and boat covers, bags, storage containers, and sleeping bags.Needless to say, the Inupiat women always had something to keep them busy!
